Tag Archives: psychology

Multiple Relationships Not Always Bad

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By Ofer Zur, PhD

Entering into dual relationships with psychotherapy patients has been a topic of significant controversy in professional psychology. Although these types of extratherapeutic alliances have generally been considered to be unethical conduct, some authors recently have supported their development as both ethical and, in some cases, even therapeutic.

I was surprised to read the statement of my esteemed colleague, Ed Zuckerman, PhD, in the last issue of The National Psychologist (Nov/Dec, 2011), whereas part of an article on “The Fiduciary Heart of Ethics“ he stated, “We have an ethical obligation to avoid multiple relationships.”

This statement is in contrast to the APA’s code of ethics, (Section 3.05), which clearly states that: “A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationship could reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist’s objectivity, competence or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a psychologist or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person with whom the professional relationship exists.”

Multiple relationships not always badMultiple relationships not reasonably expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical.

Zuckerman’s statement and discussion of multiple relationships are not only incorrect, unsupported and outdated, but also are in clear contrast to the standard of care of psychotherapy and counseling. For example, multiple relationships are mandated in military settings where psychologists often have primary loyalty to the Department of Defense and only a secondary loyalty to the person they are treating in the consulting room. Multiple relationships are inherent in some correctional settings, such as prisons, where psychologists have a responsibility to the security of the institution, as well as to the mental health of actual patients.

Zuckerman, who to the best of my knowledge, lives in Pennsylvania, should be aware that multiple relationships are unavoidable in small communities and rural areas, which are quite prevalent in his state. In fact, they are a normal and healthy part of such interconnected communities. Familiarity and multiple relationships between all members of small communities, including health care providers, is how such communities survive and thrive.

Not all multiple relationships are created equal. There are different types of multiple relationships:

  • A social multiple relationship is one in which a therapist and client are also friends, acquaintances or have some other type of social relationship within their community.
  • A professional multiple relationship is where a psychotherapist/counselor and client, are also professional colleagues in colleges or training institutions, presenters in professional conferences, co-authors of a book, or other situations that create professional multiple relationships.
  • Institutional multiple relationships take place in the military, prisons, some police departments and mental hospitals where multiple relationships are an inherent part of the institutional settings.
  • Forensic multiple relationships involve clinicians who serve as treating therapists, evaluators and witnesses in trials or hearings.
  • Supervisory relationships inherently involve multiple relationships and multiple loyalties. A supervisor has a professional relationship and duty to the supervisee and to the client, as well as to the profession.
  • A sexual multiple relationship is where a therapist and client are also involved in a sexual relationship.

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Sexual multiple relationships with current clients are always unethical. A business multiple relationship is generally ill-advised. These are relationships, in which a therapist and client are business partners or have an employer-employee relationship.

Multiple relationships can be ethical or unethical, legal or illegal, and can be avoidable, unavoidable or mandated. They can also be planned and anticipated or unexpected. Then they can be concurrent or sequential and can also very with different levels of involvement, from low/minimal to intense.

In summary:

  • Non-sexual multiple relationships are not necessarily unethical or illegal.
  • Multiple relationships can’t be avoided in many settings and are mandated in others.
  • Multiple relationships are a healthy part of small and rural communities.
  • Sexual multiple relationships with current clients are always unethical.

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Non-sexual multiple relationships do not necessarily lead to exploitation, sex or harm. The opposite can be true. Multiple relationships can reduce isolation and prevent exploitation rather than lead to it. Almost all professional association codes of ethics do not mandate a blanket avoidance of multiple relationships.

Source: Ethics & Risk Management: Expert Tips VI

Virginia Psychologists Continuing Education and License Renewals

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virginia psychologists continuing educationVirginia-licensed psychologists have an annual license renewal with a June 30th deadline. Fourteen (14) hours of continuing education are required in order to renew a license. Of the 14 hours, eight (8) hours are allowed from home study if APA approved. Six hours must be live. Other requirements include 1.5 hours of ethics, standards of practice, or laws governing the profession of psychology.

The purpose of continuing education is to encourage the highest possible standards for the psychology profession. All licensees are required to participate in continuing education as a licensing condition.

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Professional Development Resources maintains responsibility for all programs and content.

Continuing Education Requirements

Virginia-licensed psychologists have an annual license renewal with a June 30th deadline. Fourteen (14) hours of continuing education are required for license renewals. Of the 14 hours, eight (8) hours are allowed from home study if APA approved. Six hours must be live. Other requirements include 1.5 hours of ethics, standards of practice, or laws governing the profession of psychology.

Information obtained from the Virginia Board of Psychology on June 12, 2013.

 

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Spooky Savings Extended thru Sunday!

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Halloween Sale Extended!

We originally intended to end our Halloween CE Sale on October 31, but have decided to extend it through the weekend so that those affected by Superstorm Sandy won’t miss out.

Our thoughts and best wishes go out to the residents of the stricken areas. We hope for good weather and a quick and successful recovery.

We have extended our sale prices through 11/4. Click on your profession to view.

 

License Renewal & Continuing Education for Massachusetts Psychologists

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License Renewal & Continuing Education for Massachusetts PsychologistsMassachusetts-licensed psychologists have a biennial license renewal deadline of June 30, even years. 20 hours of board-approved continuing education are required to renew. The board recognizes The American Psychological Association as a provider of continuing education courses for Massachusetts psychologists.

The purpose of continuing education is to assure high standards for the practice of psychology by requiring licensees to participate in on-going educational activities. Through these experiences, licensees may increase their competence and enhance the knowledge obtained during prior education and training.

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Professional Development Resources maintains responsibility for all programs and content. Massachusetts psychologists may earn all 20 of their required hours through online coursework offered @ http://www.pdresources.org/Courses/Psychology/Online/CourseID/1/

Continuing Education Requirements

All licensees are required, as a condition of license renewal, to complete a minimum of 20 hours of continuing education activities per licensure/renewal period (every two years).

All 20 hours may be earned in formal learning programs with specific learning objectives sponsored by Board-recognized entities.

Continuing education activities in the form of publication of books, chapters of books, and/or articles in refereed journals, relevant to the science or practice of psychology may be substituted for not more than ten of the total 20 hours of continuing education activities required per licensure/renewal period.

Evaluation and Verification of Continuing Education Hours and Programs

At the time of renewal, each licensee will be required to submit a signed, notarized statement, on a form provided by the Board, attesting to completion of the continuing education requirements.

All continuing education activities required for licensure renewal must be clearly psychological in content and/or directly relevant to the science or practice of psychology.

For each continuing education hour earned by participation in formal learning programs, the licensee must be able to document the following information:

  • the title of the program
  • the number of hours spent in the program
  • the name of the Board-recognized entity which sponsored the program
  • the date the program was given

For each continuing education activity hour earned by publication of books, chapters of books, and/or articles in refereed journals, the licensee must be able to document the following information:

  • the title of the book, chapter or article and, in the case of a chapter or article, the title of the book or name of the journal in which it appears
  • the date of publication
  • the names of any co-authors

The Board may require the licensee to provide a copy of the book, chapter or article that he/she is relying on as a continuing education activity.

Failure to comply with the continuing education requirements will result in the non-renewal of the license.

The Board of Registration of Psychologists: http://www.mass.gov/ocabr/licensee/dpl-boards/py/

License Renewal & Continuing Education Information for Louisiana Psychologists

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Louisiana psychologist licenses expire annually on July 31st.

Louisiana psychologists can earn all 30 hours for renewal online!Each psychologist is required to complete 30 hours of credit of continuing education within the biennial reporting period, with 2 of the 30 in ethics or forensics. [Odd licensees report on odd years, even licensees report in even years (i.e., License #3120 reports in 2012)].

The biennial reporting period is July 1st through June 30th (i.e., July 1, 2011 through June 30, 2013).

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Louisiana psychologists can earn all 30 hours for renewal through online (home study) coursework offered @ http://www.pdresources.org/Courses/Psychology/Online/CourseID/1/.

Licensees can accumulate continuing education hours of credit in six primary ways:

  • completion for credit of a graduate level course, sponsored by an acceptable institution of higher education
  • documentation, by the instructor, of the completion of at least 75 percent of any audited graduate level course which is sponsored by an acceptable institution of higher education
  • preparation and teaching of a graduate level psychology course in an accredited institution of higher education;
  • completion of continuing education activities conducted or approved by an acceptable institution or organization
  • preparation and teaching of a seminar or workshop conducted under the sponsorship of an acceptable institution or organization
  • registered attendance at a professional meeting, conference, or convention which lasts one full day or longer

Acceptable continuing education activities are defined as:

  • formally organized and planned instructional experiences
  • programs which have objectives compatible with the post-doctoral educational needs of the licensed psychologist
  • professional meetings, conferences, or conventions lasting one full day or longer which are designed to promote professional development

The board will recognize the following as acceptable sponsors of the continuing education requirements:

  • accredited institutions of higher education
  • hospitals which have approved Regional Medical Continuing Education Centers
  • hospitals which have APA approved doctoral internship training programs
  • national, regional, or state professional associations, or divisions of such associations, which specifically offer or approve graduate or post-doctoral continuing education training
  • American Psychological Association (APA) approved sponsors and activities offered by APA (including home study courses)
  • activities sponsored by the Board of Examiners of Psychologists
  • activities sponsored by the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals or its subordinate units and approved by the chief psychologist of the sponsoring state office

Louisiana State Board of Examiners of Psychologists: http://www.lsbep.org/

Florida Psychology License Renewal & Continuing Education

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Florida psychologists have an upcoming license renewal deadline of May 31, 2012.

Every licensee must complete 40 hours of approved continuing psychological education (CE) within the two year licensure period (biennium) including 2 hours on the prevention of medical errors, 3 hours on ethics and Florida laws, and 2 hours on domestic violence (every third renewal).

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Professional Development Resources maintains responsibility for all programs and content. Professional Development Resources is also approved by the Florida Board of Psychology and Office of School Psychology (CE Broker Provider #50-1635 – courses are automatically reported to CE Broker). Florida psychologists may earn all 40 required hours @ pdresources.org.

Questions about CE Broker? Click here for answers to FAQs.
Preventing Medical ErrorsPreventing Medical Errors in Behavioral Health is intended to increase clinicians’ awareness of the types of errors that can occur within mental health practice, how such errors damage clients, and numerous ways they can be prevented. Its emphasis is on areas within mental health practice that carry the potential for “medical” errors. Examples include improper diagnosis, breach of confidentiality, failure to maintain accurate clinical records, failure to comply with mandatory abuse reporting laws, inadequate assessment of potential for violence, and the failure to detect medical conditions presenting as psychiatric disorders (or vice-versa). It includes detailed plans for error reduction and prevention like root cause analysis, habitual attention to patient safety, and ethical and legal guidelines. The course includes numerous cases illustrations to help demonstrate common and not-so-common behavioral health errors and specific practices that can help clinicians become proactive in preventing them. Course #20-10B | 2010 | 31 pages | 15 posttest questions
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Ethics and Law in Florida PsychologyEthics & Law in Florida Psychology ensures that Florida-licensed psychologists are fully aware of the ethical and legal privileges and constraints under which they are licensed to practice in the State of Florida. It provides the opportunity for a comprehensive reading of the APA Code of Ethics and the three sets of statutes and rules governing the practice of psychology in Florida. Completing this course will fulfill the requirement that licensed psychologists in Florida complete each biennial renewal period three hours of continuing education on professional ethics and Florida Statutes and rules affecting the practice of psychology. Course #30-06 | 2012 | 40 pages | 21 posttest questions
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domestic violenceDomestic Violence: Child Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence is intended to help health professionals maintain a high state of vigilance and to be well prepared with immediate and appropriate responses when abuse is disclosed. There is a special section on the complexity of an abuse victim’s decision about if and when to leave an abuser. This course will teach clinicians to detect abuse when they see it, screen for the particulars, and respond with definitive assistance in safety planning, community referrals, and individualized treatment plans. Course #20-61 | 2012 | 31 pages | 18 posttest questions

Using Psychology to Cut Portion Sizes

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By Lauran Neergaard – Associated Press

Call it the alter-ego of super-sizing.

Researchers infiltrated a fast-food Chinese restaurant and found up to a third of diners jumped at the offer of a half-size of the usual heaping pile of rice or noodles — even when the smaller amount cost the same.

HEALTHBEAT: Trimming super-size with psychology, from half-order sides to color of the platesGiant portion sizes are one of the culprits behind the epidemic of bulging waistlines, and nowhere is the portion-creep more evident than in restaurants with French fry-heavy meal deals or plates overflowing with pasta. Now scientists are tapping into the psychology of eating to find ways to trim portions without people feeling cheated — focusing on everything from the starchy sides to the color of the plates.

“The small Coke now is what used to be a large 15 years ago,” laments psychologist Janet Schwartz, a marketing professor at Tulane University who led the Chinese food study. “We should ask people what portion size they want,” instead of large being the default.

Restaurants are paying close attention, says prominent food-science researcher Brian Wansink of Cornell University. His own tests found children were satisfied with about half the fries in their Happy Meal long before McDonald’s cut back the size, and the calories, last year.

“We’ll be seeing some very creative ways of down-sizing in the next couple of years,” predicts Wansink, author of Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think.

But let’s call it “right-sizing,” says Duke University behavioral economist Dan Ariely. Right-size suggests it’s a good portion, not a cut, he says.

Couldn’t you just get a doggie bag? Sure, if you’ve got the willpower to stop before your plate is mostly clean. Lots of research shows Americans don’t. We tend to rely on visual cues about how much food is left, shoveling it in before the stomach-to-brain signal of “hey wait, I’m getting full” can arrive.

So Schwartz and Ariely tested a different approach: Could we limit our own temptation if we focus not on the tastiest reason we visited a restaurant — the entree — but on the side dishes? After all, restaurants can pile on calorie-dense starches like rice or pasta or fries because they’re very inexpensive, filling the plate so it looks like a good deal, Schwartz says.

A popular Chinese franchise at Duke University, with a mix of students, staff and visitors to the campus hospital, allowed the researchers in at lunchtime.

In the serving line, customers pick the rice or noodles first. The standard serving is a whopping 10 ounces, about 400 calories even before ordering the entree, says Schwartz. There was no half-size option on the menu board.

In a series of experiments, servers asked 970 customers after their initial rice or noodle order: “Would you like a half-order to save 200 calories?” Those who said yes didn’t order a higher-calorie entree to compensate. Weighing leftovers showed they threw away the same amount of food as customers who refused or weren’t offered the option.

A 25-cent discount didn’t spur more takers. Nor did adding calorie labels so people could calculate for themselves, the researchers report in this month’s journal Health Affairs — concluding the up-front offer made the difference.

Anywhere from 14 percent to 33 percent chose the reduced portions, depending on the day and the mix of customers.

Even 200 fewer calories can add up over time. And other tricks can trim portions without people noticing, whether dining out or at home. Cornell’s Wansink found people served 18 percent more pasta with marinara sauce onto a red plate than a white one — and 18 percent more pasta alfredo onto a white plate.

A stark contrast “makes you think twice before you throw on another scoop,” explains Wansink. His own family bought some dark dinner plates to supplement their white ones, because people tend to overeat white starches more than veggies.

Wansink’s other research has found:

—Switching from 11-inch plates to 10-inch plates makes people take less food, and waste less food. The slightly smaller plate makes a normal serving look more satisfying.

—People think they’re drinking more from a tall skinny glass than a short wide one even if both hold the same volume, a finding Wansink says was widely adopted by bars.

—Beware if kids eat from the adult bowls. He found 6-year-olds serve themselves 44 percent more food in an 18-ounce bowl than a 12-ounce bowl.

Restaurants are starting to get the message that at least some customers want to eat more sensibly. Applebees, for example, has introduced a line of meals under 550 calories, including such things as steak.

And a National Restaurant Association survey found smaller-portion entrees, “mini-meals” for adults and kids, and bite-size desserts made a new trend list.

It’s all consumer demand, says association nutrition director Joy Dubost: More diners now are “requesting the healthier options and paying attention to their calories.”

Source: http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/healthbeat-trimming-super-size-with-psychology-from-half-order-sides-to-color-of-the-plates/2012/02/14/gIQABz6kCR_story.html

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Renewal Information for Iowa Psychologists

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Iowa psychologists can earn all 40 hours of continuing education through online courses @ www.pdresources.org

Click to view approved online courses

Psychologists in Iowa must renew their licenses every 2 years, on June 30th of even-numbered years. The current renewal deadline is June 30, 2012. 40 hours of continuing education are required to renew, including 6 hours in ethics, laws/regulations or risk management.

Licensees may earn all 40 hours through online courses offered by APA-approved providers.

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Over 100 online courses are available at: http://www.pdresources.org/Index.aspx

Continuing Education Requirements:

The biennial continuing education compliance period shall extend for a two-year period beginning on July 1 of even-numbered years and ending on June 30 of even-numbered years. Each biennium, each person who is licensed to practice as a Psychologist in Iowa shall be required to complete a minimum of 40 hours of continuing education approved by the board.

A continuing education activity which meets all of the following criteria is appropriate for continuing education credit if the continuing education activity:

  • Constitutes an organized program of learning which contributes directly to the professional competency of the licensee
  • Pertains to subject matters which integrally relate to the practice of the profession
  • Is conducted by individuals who have specialized education, training and experience by reason of which said individuals should be considered qualified concerning the subject matter of the program. At the time of audit, the board may request the qualifications of presenters
  • Fulfills stated program goals, objectives, or both
  • Provides proof of completion or attendance

Licensees shall obtain 6 hours of continuing education pertaining to the practice of psychology in any of the following areas: ethical issues, federal mental health laws and regulations, Iowa mental health laws and regulations, or risk management.

A licensee may obtain the remainder of continuing education hours of credit by:

  • Completing training to comply with mandatory reporter training requirements. Hours reported for credit shall not exceed the hours required to maintain compliance with required training.
  • Attending programs/activities that are sponsored by the American Psychological Association or the Iowa Psychological Association.
  • Completing academic coursework that meets the criteria set forth in these rules.
  • Conducting scholarly research or other activities that integrally relate to the practice of psychology, the results of which are published in a recognized professional publication.
  • Preparing new courses that have received approval from the board.
  • Completing home study courses for which a certificate of completion is issued.
  • Completing electronically transmitted courses for which a certificate of completion is issued.
  • Attending workshops, conferences, or symposiums.

Iowa Board of Psychology: http://www.idph.state.ia.us/licensure/board_home.asp?board=psy

Renewal Information for DC Psychologists

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DC Psychologists can earn up to 15 hours for renewal online!

Click to view APA-approved online courses

Psychologists licensed in Washington DC are required to renew their licenses biennially on December 31st of odd-numbered years. 30 hours of continuing education (CE) are required to renew. 3 hours must be on ethics and 3 hours must pertain to cultural competence. 15 hours are allowed from APA-approved online or home study courses.

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Professional Development Resources maintains responsibility for all programs and content. Over 100 online and home study courses are available at: http://www.pdresources.org/Courses/Psychology/AllCourses/CourseID/1/

CONTINUING EDUCATION REQUIREMENTS

An applicant for renewal of a license shall submit proof of having completed thirty (30) hours of approved continuing education credit during the two-year (2) period preceding the date the license expires.

An applicant under this section shall prove completion of required continuing education credits by submitting with the application the following information with respect to each continuing education program or activity:

  • The name and address of the sponsor of the program;
  • The name of the program, its location, a description of the subject matter covered, a complete schedule with time allotments for each topic or subtopic and lunch or breaks, and the name of each instructor or speaker;
  • The date(s) on which the applicant participated in the program;
  • The hours of continuing education credit claimed; and
  • A copy of the continuing education completion verification document that includes the sponsor’s signature and seal.

A licensee shall complete three (3) continuing education credits in each of the following:

  • Ethics or risk liability; and
  • Cultural competence.

APPROVED CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES

The Board may, in its discretion, approve continuing education programs and activities that contribute to the growth of an applicant in professional competence in the practice of psychology and which meet the other requirements of this section.

The Board may approve the following types of continuing education programs:

  • A seminar or workshop;
  • An education program given at a conference;
  • In-service training; and
  • An online or home study course; or
  • An undergraduate or graduate course given at an accredited college or university provided that the undergraduate course shall be acceptable only if the Board determines that the course is required or needed by the licensee as an introductory component of a professional development plan for the purpose of entering an area of psychology for which the licensee is currently not qualified to practice independently.

To qualify for Board approval, a continuing education program shall do the following:

  • Be current in its subject matter;
  • Be developed by qualified individuals of whom one shall be a psychologist;
  • Be taught of facilitated by at least one qualified individual; and
  • Meet one of the following requirements:
    • Be administered by an accredited college or university;
    • Be approved by a Board-recognized psychology organization, accredited health care facility, or other legally constituted organization; or
    • Be submitted by the program sponsor to the Board for review no less than sixty (60) days prior to the date of the presentation and be approved by the Board before the program or activity starts.

The program or activity shall include each of the following:

  • The sponsor’s name and address;
  • The program’s name;
  • The location;
  • A description and specific goals;
  • The target audience’s maximum size and professional level (Master’s or doctorate);
  • The program’s tentative or actual schedule, including the allotted time for lunch, breaks and topic headings or subheadings;
  • An appropriately constructed evaluation form and continuing education completion verification document;
  • The name and credentials of each instructor or speaker including relevant education, training, research, publications, work samples(s), honor or awards, special recognition and, if applicable;
  • The evaluation results of comparable programs or activities previously conducted.

An applicant shall have the burden of verifying whether a program is approved by the Board pursuant to this section prior to attending the program.

The Board may approve the following continuing education activities:

  • Serving as an instructor or speaker at a conference, seminar, workshop, or in-service training;
  • Being the author or coauthor of an article (including “critiques” and “responses”) or a book review in a professional journal or periodical, or author or coauthor of a book or book chapter;
  • Serving as an editor (including “associate” and “junior” levels) for a professional journal, periodical or book;
  • Serving as an article reviewer for a professional journal or periodical; or
  • Having developed an online or home study continuing education course.

A licensee shall receive no more than fifteen (15) continuing education credits for completing any combination of online and home study courses.

The District of Columbia Board of Psychology: http://hpla.doh.dc.gov/hpla/cwp/view,A,1195,Q,488253,hplaNav,%7C30661%7C,.asp

Renewal Information for North Dakota Psychologists

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Psychologists in North Dakota renew their licenses annually on January 1st.

  • North Dakota Psychologists can earn up to 20 hours of continuing education online!

    Click to view APA-approved online CE!

    40 hours of continuing education are required every 2 years to maintain licensure. The CE cycle runs from November 1st of initial licensure year to October 31st every 2 years

  • 3 hours in ethics, law or jurisprudence are required each cycle
  • 20 hours are allowed from online and home study courses (category 4)
  • Courses offered by APA-approved providers are accepted by the North Dakota Board of Psychologist Examiners

For full description of current CE categories and their CE credit values, go to: http://www.legis.nd.gov/information/acdata/html/66-03.html

  • Category 1: Formal CE programs that may consist of courses, workshops, professional psychology conventions, conferences or institutes
  • Category 2: Postgraduate courses offered by an accredited college or university which are relevant to the applicant’s practice
  • Category 3: Writing or speaking, publication in professional journal or book; see NDAC 66-03-01-04 (3) for CE credits granted
  • Category 4: Correspondence or online courses, tapes, or independent readings approved by the board (maximum 20 CE in this category)

Professional Development Resources is approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. Professional Development Resources maintains responsibility for all programs and content. Over 100 online and home study courses are available for North Dakota Psychologists @ http://www.pdresources.org/Index.aspx

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The word jurisprudence derives from the Latin term juris prudentia, which means “the study, knowledge, or science of law.” In the United States jurisprudence commonly means the philosophy of law. Legal philosophy has many aspects, but four of them are the most common. The first and the most prevalent form of jurisprudence seeks to analyze, explain, classify, and criticize entire bodies of law. Law school textbooks and legal encyclopedias represent this type of scholarship. The second type of jurisprudence compares and contrasts law with other fields of knowledge such as literature, economics, religion, and the social sciences. The third type of jurisprudence seeks to reveal the historical, moral, and cultural basis of a particular legal concept. The fourth body of jurisprudence focuses on finding the answer to such abstract questions as what is law? More @ http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/jurisprudence